Indicator 4.1c: Management of the risks to soil physical properties in forests (2025)

• Soil physical properties in forests are protected by a combination of legally binding and non-legally binding instruments, including legislation, regulations, licences, codes of practice, guidelines and management plans, in all states and territories.
• Disturbance activities in public forests associated with forest management, such as wood harvesting and associated road and track construction and maintenance, are assessed for risks to soil physical properties, and protective measures are implemented.
• Soil protection measures are applied across multiple-use public forests, reflecting the role of soil in forest sustainability.
• This indicator reports mainly on multiple-use public forest and nature conservation reserves because, in most jurisdictions, limited information is available for forested land under other tenures.

Soil is the essential substrate supporting and nourishing forests. The appropriate management of soils is therefore fundamental to sustainable forest management.

Soil physical properties include soil structure, density, compaction, texture, permeability and water-holding capacity. Degradation of these properties can affect seed germination and growth and survival of trees, and can have other effects, such as increased water run-off and consequent erosion. It is therefore important that forest management operations do not result in permanent adverse changes to soil physical properties and that any temporary adverse changes are minimised so recovery is achieved in as short time as possible.

The principal impacts of forestry operations on the physical properties of soils are associated with wood production and include tree-felling, extracting felled trees, activities at log dumps and log landings, preparing sites for regeneration or planting, and construction of roads, trails and log extraction tracks. Potential impacts of these forest disturbance activities are soil compaction, soil movement, and removal of organic matter. The impact of vehicles, particularly heavy-tracked vehicles, on the physical characteristics of soils is immediate and generally obvious, but the degree of impact depends on the soil type, the soil moisture content, the loading pressure, and the duration and frequency of such pressure, including the number of times a vehicle passes over a track. It is therefore essential that forest management practices are carefully designed and implemented to maintain the soil conservation values of forests.

Australian states and territories have guidelines and measures that are implemented to reduce risks to soil physical properties, particularly in vulnerable areas such as riparian zones and slopes, and during wet-weather operations. These measures also depend on soil type, seasonal conditions, and the nature of the forest management activity. Some common measures include:

• identifying vulnerable areas, such as karst terrain, wetlands, and high erosion or landslip risk zones, and avoiding disturbance in these areas
• minimising disturbance to streambeds and banks by applying riparian exclusion and buffer zones, limiting the number of stream crossings, and using well-designed crossing structures
• providing and maintaining adequate drainage for roads, log extraction tracks and firebreaks, using well-designed drainage structures such as culverts and table drains
• restricting activities on steep slopes
• implementing walk-over extraction, selecting suitable location for log dumps and landings, and arranging log extraction tracks appropriately, for example by contouring, during wood harvesting
• row based site preparation and/or planting trees along the contour of slopes
• undertaking prescribed burning during milder seasonal conditions to encourage a mosaic of burnt and unburnt area, particularly in sensitive areas such as riparian zones
• rehabilitating disturbed areas upon completion of an activity
• implementing wet-weather shutdowns (stopping operations during periods of wet weather)
• conducting regular audits of forest management activities to ensure compliance with regulations, licences, codes of practice and operational procedures.

All Australian states and territories have both legally binding and non-legally binding instruments to minimise degradation of soil physical properties across different land tenures, with mechanisms in place to ensure compliance. Legally binding and non-legally binding instruments provide guidance and measures to reduce risks to soil physical properties associated with activities in forests. Operational guidelines for managing soil impacts from forest management activities are often included in codes of practice and management plans.

A detailed list of regulatory instruments addressing risks to soil physical properties in all states and territories is provided in Table 4.1c-1 in Supporting Information for Indicator 4.1c.

Australian Capital Territory

In the Australian Capital Territory, soil conservation and maintenance is governed by the Public Unleased Land Act 2013, Environment Protection Act 1997, and the Nature Conservation Act 2014, supported by other policies.

Within the publicly owned forestry plantation estate, soil conservation is further guided by the Strategic Plantation Management Plan 2017–2022 and the ACT Code of Forest Practices 2005. The Code categorises land into Soil Erodibility Classes and prescribes specific management actions for each class. Forest managers must conduct a soil erosion risk assessment, which considers the soil physical properties, before any disturbance activity takes place in plantation areas.

New South Wales

Legally binding instruments relating to soil conservation in New South Wales include the Forestry Act 2012, Forestry Regulation 2022, Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997, Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals, Local Land Services Act 2013, Private Native Forestry Codes of Practice (2022), and the Plantations and Reafforestation Act 1999 and the associated Plantations and Reafforestation (Code) Regulation 2001.

These instruments contain requirements for assessing and managing risks of soil degradation from forestry activities and are supported by various non-legally binding instruments. Non-legally binding instruments include guidance material relating to soil management developed independently by plantation owners and managers, such as the Forest Practices Code Part 1: Timber harvesting and haulage in Forestry Corporation of NSW softwood plantations (2022).

Soil regolith classes were mapped in the eastern part of the state as an input to the soil erosion and water pollution hazard assessment of forestry operations under the New South Wales State Forests’ pollution control licence. Subsequently the soil regolith mapping has been used as part of the New South Wales Integrated Forestry Operation Approvals process, which sets requirements for forestry operations on State forests and Crown timber lands in NSW.

Soil conservation, including soil physical properties, in nature conservation reserves is regulated by the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, and the National Parks and Wildlife Regulation 2019. Environmental impact assessments are required for works such as trail construction, hazard reduction burns, and revegetation. New trail construction requires a formal assessment under Part 5 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 No 203.

The New South Wales Bush Fire Environmental Assessment Code 2021 provides standards to prevent degradation during and after bushfire hazard reduction activities that have been authorised under the Rural Fires Act 1997 across all tenures.

Northern Territory

The Soil Conservation and Land Utilisation Act 1969 is the main legislation that addresses risks to soil resources in the Northern Territory. Under this Act, land may be declared an Area of Erosion Hazard or a Restricted Use Area. Although forest management activities are not specifically mentioned, the Act allows Soil Conservation Orders to be made by the Soil Commissioner to prescribe planning and remediation practices to protect soil resources during any land preparation activities, including in plantation forests (Raison et al. 2012).

The Sustainable Forestry Practices: Guidelines for the Northern Territory (2021) is a non-legally binding instrument developed by the Territory Natural Resource Management working group that provides practical guidance for plantation operations, including the requirement for site-specific Erosion and Sediment Control Plans.

Queensland

Key legislation relating to soil management and forest management activities in public native forests in Queensland include the Forestry Act 1959, Vegetation Management Act 1999, Environmental Protection Act 1994, Nature Conservation Act 1992 and the Soil Conservation Act 1986.

Forest management activities on state-owned land and timber reserves must conform to the requirements of the Forestry Act 1959. The Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020 prescribes measures to prevent degradation of the soil’s physical, biological, or chemical properties during road construction, wood harvesting and maintenance operations in state-owned native forests and timber reserves.

Forest management activities in private native forests are primarily regulated under the Vegetation Management Act 1999, under an accepted development vegetation clearing code, which, for native forestry is the Managing native forest practice: A self-assessable vegetation clearing code (2014). This Code allows for certain low-risk wood harvesting activities to be undertaken without requiring a full development approval and thus streamlining the process for native forestry on private tenure. The Code includes soil hazard assessments and erosion control standards.

Plantation activities are governed by several Acts, and associated subordinate legislation, policies and codes depending on the land tenure. Under the Soil Conservation Act 1986, plantation operators are required to conserve soil resources and take measures to prevent erosion and soil degradation. The Timber Plantation Operations Code of Practice for Queensland (2015) is a non-legally binding instrument that provides best practice guidelines for soil conservation during plantation activities.

South Australia

The Landscape South Australia Act 2019 assigns responsibility for soil management to regional landscape boards. The Act also includes provisions for declaring forestry areas, issuing forest water licences, and managing water allocations specifically for these areas.

The Forestry Regulations 2013 prohibits the intentional disturbance and removal of any soil, from a forest reserve without lawful authority. Regional natural resource management plans that include a summary of threats to soil are prepared for nature conservation reserves, multiple-use public forests, and other Crown lands.

Plantation forest management activities are regulated by the Forestry Act 1950, Forestry Regulations 2013, Forest Property Act 2000 and the Native Vegetation Act 1991. The Guidelines for Plantation Forestry in South Australia 2009 summarises mandatory requirements for plantation management and promotes practices that minimise soil disturbance during all stages of plantation operations. Management activities are informed by Plantation Forestry Land Capability Classes, which refer to the ability for an area to support plantation forestry without damaging soils.

Tasmania

In Tasmania, forest management activities are regulated by the Forest Practices Authority in accordance with the Forest Practices Act 1985. All activities carried out under the Forest Practices Act 1985 require an assessment of risks to soil physical properties, irrespective of land tenure or soil type. The Forest Practices Code is legally enforceable under the Act and mandates protection of soil properties. Forest practices plans must be prepared in accordance with the code and contain instructions for protecting soil values during forestry operations such as timber harvesting and road construction.

Additional guidance concerning risks of soil erosion, compaction and soil mixing is provided through various resources, such as the handbook Forest Soils of Tasmania (Grant et al. 1995), Forest Soil Fact Sheets, and direct advice to foresters via the Forest Practices Authority’s notifications systems, through which foresters can consult with specialists on matters concerning reducing impacts on soil properties. Guidance is also provided through regular training courses. The Forest Practices Authority Earth Sciences website also offers public access to soil and water information, including operational guidelines.

Victoria

The Forests Act 1958 and the Conservation, Forests and Lands Act 1987 regulate forest management activities in public and private native forests and plantations. As of 1 July 2024, native timber harvesting on public land ended. In line with this change, the Sustainable Forests (Timber) Act 2004 was repealed, and the associated regulatory functions were discontinued. The Code of Practice for Timber Production 2014 (amended in 2022) was the statutory framework that provided guidance on maintaining soil physical properties during timber harvesting operations. While this Code remains applicable to private plantations, it is no longer required on public land as there are no timber harvesting operations.

The Code of Practice for Bushfire Management on Public Land 2025 includes measures to minimise soil degradation resulting from bushfires and related activities in state forests, national parks and on protected public land. The Code is updated periodically to ensure alignment with current bushfire management policy and practice, including Victoria's Bushfire Management Strategy (2024).

The Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 and the Catchment and Land Protection Regulations 2002 support integrated land and water management. The Act also establishes Catchment Management Authorities which are responsible for developing and implementing catchment management plans. These plans include strategies for soil conservation, including measures to control weeds that can deteriorate soil structure and fertility.

Western Australia

The Forest Management Plan 2024–2033 guides soil protection and rehabilitation measures in all publicly owned native forests and plantations in south-west Western Australia. The Plan contains management objectives and activities to address disturbance of soil and water values including a recommendation to undertake research into soil health, soil biodiversity and monitor impacts from management activities that lead to soil disturbance, as well as recovery and restoration of soil health post disturbance.

The Code of Practice for Timber Plantations in Western Australia (2006) provides guidelines for soil protection in plantations. A 2012 review of the code (Smethurst et al. 2012) recommended several improvements, including stronger provisions to adopt harvesting and slash and litter management practices to retain organic matter and nutrients and prevent soil erosion.

The Code of Practice for Fire Management (2008) applies to all state-managed land and prescribes measures to protect soils during fire management activities and rehabilitate soils following disturbance.

Various legislation applies to the clearing, and subsequent rehabilitation of native forests for mining. The Mining Act 1978 directly addresses soil conservation and requires the implementation of rehabilitation and erosion control measures. The Environmental Protection Act 1986 emphasises the importance of soil protection, primarily through the environmental impact assessment process. Under the Environmental Protection Act 1986, a licence may be required for larger mining operations that have the potential to cause pollution or environmental harm (‘prescribed premise’). Additionally, the Environmental Protection (Clearing of Native Vegetation) Regulations 2004 set specific conditions for vegetation clearing in mining, including the exclusion of clearing riparian vegetation. These regulations also stipulate that activities must avoid causing soil erosion or other forms of land degradation and, to the extent practicable, must not affect the quality of surface and subterranean water.

Compliance with legally binding and non-legally binding soil protection requirements is assessed in various ways across Australia’s states and territories, including internal and external audits.

Internal Audits

State and territory government agencies responsible for managing public forests have internal compliance systems that assess the impact of forest management activities on soil and water resources. Larger private plantation owners and managers also have internal compliance systems that assess the impact of forest management activities on soil and water resources.

The forest management system of the Forestry Corporation of New South Wales requires internal audits to be conducted to ensure compliance with Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals in multiple-use public native forests.

In Queensland, the Department of Primary Industries (DPI) monitors the compliance of timber sales permit holders with the Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020. DPI incorporates audit findings into its systems, informing permittees as part of a continuous improvement approach.

In Tasmania, the Forest Practices Officer managing coupe harvest can issue corrective action notices if the Forest Practices Plan has not been followed correctly. In addition, the Forest Practices Authority conducts random audits on forestry operations and can issue sanctions including fines if a breach of the Forest Practices Plan has occurred.

External Audits

Forest management activities, including their impact on soil physical properties, are also monitored and audited by external government departments that are responsible for regulating the relevant legislation. Compliance is also assessed by independent auditors engaged by agencies and companies seeking certification under forest management certification schemes, such as those run by the Forest Stewardship Council and Responsible Wood (internationally endorsed by the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification). Management of soil and water is an important component of each of these forest management certification schemes.

In the Australian Capital Territory, the conduct of plantation logging operations requires an Environmental Authorisation (EA) from the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), and this EA stipulates conditions related to soil and water protection. The ACT EPA enforces these conditions by conducting compliance audits every two years, either through an inspection or a desktop assessment.

In New South Wales, the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) regulates the conditions of Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals, including those relating to soil and water protection and carries out regular on-site and desktop compliance assessments. The New South Wales EPA is also responsible for monitoring and regulating wood harvesting and roading activities in private native forests as per the Private Native Forestry Codes of Practice (2022). Softwood and hardwood plantation operations in New South Wales are regulated by the Plantations Regulation Unit of the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, which audits 30-40 sites annually, with priority given to large plantations in steep, high-rainfall areas.

In Queensland, the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is responsible for operational auditing and reporting on the level of compliance with the Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020. The Department of Resources monitors compliance under the accepted development vegetation clearing code for native forest activities on private land, using satellite imagery, audits, and community reports.

In South Australia, soil cover and disturbance are monitored using remote sensing and predictive models. General compliance is the responsibility of the relevant landscape board authorised under the Landscape South Australia Act 2019.

In Tasmania, the Forest Practices Act 1985 mandates compliance with certified Forest Practices Plans, which must be followed by wood harvesting and roading contractors. The Forest Practices Authority performs random independent assessments on selected sites in which all aspects of planning and operations are scrutinised.

In Western Australia, the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions oversees the approvals, monitoring and compliance system for disturbance activities in state forests and timber reserves. The Department audits a range of forest management activities for compliance with requirements of the Forest Management Plan 2024–2033.

In addition to operational compliance monitoring, there are various long-term forest monitoring programs across Australia that incorporate assessments relating to soil conservation.

New South Wales

The New South Wales Forest Monitoring and Improvement Program tracks key soil indicators including soil organic carbon, and pH within Regional Forest Agreement regions (Moyce et al. 2021). Forestry Corporation of New South Wales undertakes a range of long-term studies to better understand the impacts of forest harvesting to soil and water, including in Karuah River catchment (See Case study 4.1b-1).

Tasmania

Tasmania’s River Health Monitoring Program, run by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, covers 53 sites. This is in addition to 60 sites that have been monitored historically (1994–2016). The River Health Monitoring Program, through its periodic reviews, shifted some focus towards areas with intensive land use and disturbance, including forestry landscapes. For example, the 2018–23 monitoring cycle included sampling fine sediment levels and macroinvertebrate communities that are critical indicators of in-stream impacts from forest activities or burning.

Victoria

The Victorian Forest Monitoring Program has previously included ground plot data on soil characteristics. This ground plot data tracked soil condition and uses those measurements to support sustainability reporting and management decisions. Wherever possible, Victoria continues to identify risks to soil structure, and erosion vulnerability.

Western Australia

The Western Australia Forest Health Monitoring Program is managed by the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions and includes assessment of forest activities on soil characteristics, including salinisation, acidification, fertility and microbiome.

Grant JC, Laffan MD, Hill RB, Neilsen WA (1995). Forest Soils of Tasmania: Handbook for identification and management. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.

Moyce MC, Gray JM, Wilson BR, Jenkins BR, Young MA, Ugbaje SU, Bishop TFA, Yang X, Henderson LE, Milford HB, Tulau MJ (2021). Determining baselines, drivers and trends of soil health and stability in New South Wales forests: NSW Forest Monitoring & Improvement Program, Final report v1.1 for NSW Natural Resources Commission by NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment and University of Sydney.

Raison RJ, Smethurst PJ, Moggridge B, Nambiar EKS (2012). Assessment of Code of Practice for Plantation Forestry: Northern Territory. CSIRO National Research Flagships for Sustainable Agriculture, and Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.

Smethurst PJ, Nambiar EKS, Raison J, Moggridge B (2012). Assessment of Code of Practice for Plantation Forestry: Western Australia. CSIRO National Research Flagships for Sustainable Agriculture, and Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.