Indicator 4.1b: Management of the risk of soil erosion in forests (2025)

• All states and territories have a combination of legally binding and non-legally binding instruments, such as legislation, regulations, licences, codes of forest practice, guidelines and management plans, which provide for the avoidance, prevention or mitigation of soil erosion that might result from activities on forested land.
• All states and territories have processes to ensure compliance with measures to mitigate or prevent soil erosion.
• In some states, the forest practices system contains comprehensive soil assessment measures for managing soil erosion risk in multiple-use public forests.
• This indicator reports mainly on multiple-use public forest and nature conservation reserves because, in most jurisdictions, limited information is available for forested land under other tenures.

Soil erosion is the relocation of soil by environmental forces – that is, the loss of soil from one area and its deposition into another. Minimisation of soil erosion through avoidance, prevention or mitigation is essential to protecting soil and water values in forested areas and is critical to maintaining many other forest values. Soil conservation measures are therefore an essential part of sustainable forest management.

The term ‘minimise’ is used in this indicator to cover each of the different steps of avoiding, preventing and mitigating erosion. In this context, ‘avoidance’ is the selection of management actions that do not lead to erosion, ‘prevention’ is incorporation of provisions into actions so that erosion does not occur, and ‘mitigation’ is reducing the negative impacts of any erosion that results from management actions.

Soil erosion on forested lands can be minimised through careful planning and implementation of forest management activities. Management actions taken to minimise soil erosion can vary greatly, depending on the nature of the forest soil and the activities being undertaken. Key forest management considerations include the use of appropriate machinery, avoiding disturbance in high-risk areas, timing of activities, and retaining vegetation.

Australian states and territories have guidelines and measures that are implemented to reduce soil erosion risk, particularly in vulnerable areas such as riparian zones and slopes, and during wet-weather operations. These measures also depend on soil type, seasonal conditions, and the nature of the forest management activity. Some common measures include:

• identifying vulnerable areas, such as karst terrain, wetlands, and high erosion or landslip risk zones, and avoiding disturbance in these areas
• minimising disturbance to streambeds and banks by applying riparian exclusion and buffer zones, limiting the number of stream crossings, and using well-designed crossing structures
• providing and maintaining adequate drainage for roads, log extraction tracks and firebreaks, using well-designed drainage structures such as culverts and table drains
• restricting activities on steep slopes
• implementing walk-over extraction, selecting suitable location for log dumps and landings, and arranging log extraction tracks appropriately, for example by contouring, during wood harvesting
• row based site preparation and/or planting trees along the contour of slopes
• undertaking prescribed burning during milder seasonal conditions to encourage a mosaic of burnt and unburnt areas, particularly in sensitive areas such as riparian zones
• rehabilitating disturbed areas upon completion of an activity
• stopping operations or closing forests for defined periods of wet weather
• conducting regular audits of forest management activities to ensure compliance with regulations, licences, codes of practice and operational procedures.

All Australian states and territories have both legally binding and non-legally binding instruments to minimise soil erosion across different land tenures, with mechanisms in place to ensure compliance. Legally binding and non-legally binding instruments provide guidance and measures to address soil erosion associated with activities in forests. For example, forestry operations and associated activities are often guided by codes of practice, which generally require wood harvesting to occur in ways that prevent and/or mitigate soil erosion, particularly for locations that are most susceptible. Soil erosion associated with other forest management activities and recreational activities are generally managed through appropriate design, construction, access to and use of relevant infrastructure.

A detailed list of regulatory instruments addressing risks of soil erosion in all states and territories is provided in Table 4.1b-1 in Supporting Information for Indicator 4.1b.

Australian Capital Territory

In the Australian Capital Territory, soil conservation and maintenance is governed by the Public Unleased Land Act 2013, Environment Protection Act 1997, and the Nature Conservation Act 2014, supported by other policies.

Within the publicly owned forestry plantation estate, soil conservation is further guided by the Strategic Plantation Management Plan 2017–2022 and the ACT Code of Forest Practices 2005. The Code categorises land into Soil Erodibility Classes and prescribes specific management actions for each class. Forest managers must conduct a soil erosion risk assessment before any disturbance activity takes place in plantation areas.

New South Wales

Legally binding instruments relating to soil erosion in forestry operations in New South Wales include the Forestry Act 2012, Forestry Regulation 2022, Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals, Local Land Services Act 2013, Private Native Forestry Codes of Practice 2022, Plantations and Reafforestation Act 1999 and Plantations and Reafforestation (Code) Regulation 2001, and the Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997.

These instruments contain requirements for assessing and managing risks of soil erosion and degradation from forestry activities and are supported by various operating procedures. Operating procedures and controls include guidance material relating to soil management developed independently by forest managers, such as the Forest Practices Code Part 1: Timber harvesting and haulage in Forestry Corporation of NSW softwood plantations (2022).

Soil conservation in nature conservation reserves is regulated by the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974, and the National Parks and Wildlife Regulation 2019. Environmental impact assessments are required for works such as trail construction, hazard reduction burns, and revegetation. New trail construction requires a formal assessment under Part 5 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 No 203. The Ecological Health Performance Scorecards Program measures ecological health across eight national parks in New South Wales, including those with forest ecosystems. The program includes measurement of the quality of habitat and ecological processes, including vegetation structure, water quality and soil chemistry.

The New South Wales Bush Fire Environmental Assessment Code 2021 provides standards to prevent soil erosion and degradation during and after bushfire hazard reduction activities authorised under the Rural Fires Act 1997 across all tenures.

Northern Territory

The Soil Conservation and Land Utilisation Act 1969 is the main legislation that addresses risks to soil resources in the Northern Territory. Under this Act, land may be declared an Area of Erosion Hazard or a Restricted Use Area. Although forest management activities are not specifically mentioned, the Act allows Soil Conservation Orders to be made by the Soil Commissioner to prescribe planning and remediation practices to protect soil resources during any land preparation activities, including in plantation forests (Raison et al. 2012).

The Sustainable Forestry Practices: Guidelines for the Northern Territory (2021) is a non-legally binding instrument developed by the Territory Natural Resource Management working group to provide practical guidance for plantation operations, including the requirement for site-specific Erosion and Sediment Control Plans.

Queensland

Key legislation relating to soil management and forest management activities in public native forests in Queensland include the Forestry Act 1959, Vegetation Management Act 1999, Environmental Protection Act 1994, Nature Conservation Act 1992 and the Soil Conservation Act 1986.

Forest management activities on state-owned land and timber reserves must conform to the requirements of the Forestry Act 1959. The Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020 prescribes measures to prevent soil erosion during road construction, wood harvesting and maintenance operations in state-owned native forests and timber reserves.

Forest management activities in private native forests are primarily regulated under the Vegetation Management Act 1999, under an accepted development vegetation clearing code, which, for native forestry is the Managing native forest practice: A self-assessable vegetation clearing code (2014). This Code allows for certain low-risk wood harvesting activities to be undertaken without requiring a full development approval and thus streamlining the process for native forestry on private tenure. The Code includes soil hazard assessments and erosion control standards.

Plantation activities are governed by several Acts, and associated subordinate legislation, policies and codes depending on the land tenure. Under the Soil Conservation Act 1986, plantation operators are required to conserve soil resources and take measures to prevent erosion and soil degradation. The Timber Plantation Operations Code of Practice for Queensland (2015) is a non-legally binding instrument that provides best practice guidelines for soil conservation during plantation activities.

South Australia

The Landscape South Australia Act 2019 assigns responsibility for soil management to regional landscape boards. The Act also includes provisions for declaring forestry areas, issuing forest water licences, and managing water allocations specifically for these areas.

The Forestry Regulations 2013 prohibits the intentional disturbance and removal of any soil from a forest reserve without lawful authority. Regional natural resource management plans that include a summary of threats to soil are prepared for nature conservation reserves, multiple-use public forest, and other Crown lands. Wood harvesting in native forests is prohibited in South Australia.

Plantation forest management activities are regulated by the Forestry Act 1950, Forestry Regulations 2013, Forest Property Act 2000 and the Native Vegetation Act 1991. The Guidelines for Plantation Forestry in South Australia 2009 summarises mandatory requirements for plantation management and promotes practices that minimise soil disturbance during all stages of plantation operations. Management activities are informed by Plantation Forestry Land Capability Classes, which refer to the ability for an area to support plantation forestry without damaging soils.

Tasmania

Forest management in Tasmania is regulated by the Forest Practices Authority in accordance with the Forest Practices Act 1985 irrespective of land tenure or soil type. All activities carried out under the Forest Practices Act 1985 require an assessment of soil erodibility and dominant slope class, from which an erosion risk matrix is produced which governs the types of machines that can be used in a coupe as well as numerous other prescriptions in the Forest Practices Code (for example, culvert spacing, streamside reserve width). High or very high soil erodibility is one of several criteria used to define vulnerable land in the Forest Practices Regulations 2017. The Forest Practices Code is legally enforceable under the Act and specifies that forest practices will be conducted in a manner that does not cause significant deviations from natural rates of erosion and landslides. In practice this principle is applied through the preparation of Forest Practices Plans which must identify risks associated with forestry operations and, where appropriate, include prescriptions to limit risks (for example, use spot-cultivation methods rather than mound ploughing; no side-cutting of tracks on steep slopes).

Additional guidance on erosion risks is provided through various resources, such as the handbook Forest Soils of Tasmania (Grant et al., 1995) and Forest Soil Fact Sheets, and direct advice to foresters via the Forest Practices Authority’s notifications systems, through which foresters can consult with specialists on reducing soil erosion risks. Guidance is also provided through regular training courses. The Forest Practices Authority Earth Sciences website also offers public access to soil and water information, including operational guidelines.

Highly specific guidelines have been produced to minimise erosion for some high-risk situations, e.g. in karst terrain where forestry operations have the potential to damage subsurface streams and scientific values, and in dunes near Strahan on Tasmania’s west coast.

Victoria

The Forests Act 1958 and the Conservation, Forests and Lands Act 1987 regulate forest management activities in public and private native forests and plantations. As of 1 July 2024, native timber harvesting on public land ended. In line with this change, the Sustainable Forests (Timber) Act 2004 was repealed, and the associated regulatory functions were discontinued. The Code of Practice for Timber Production 2014 (amended in 2022) was the statutory framework that provided guidance on soil erosion control during timber harvesting operations. While this Code remains applicable to private plantations, it is no longer required on public land as there are no timber harvesting operations.

The Code of Practice for Bushfire Management on Public Land 2025 includes measures to minimise soil erosion resulting from bushfires and related activities in state forests, national parks and on protected public land. The Code is updated periodically to ensure alignment with current bushfire management policy and practice, including Victoria's Bushfire Management Strategy (2024).

The Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994 and the Catchment and Land Protection Regulations 2002 support integrated land and water management. The Act also establishes Catchment Management Authorities which are responsible for developing and implementing catchment management plans. These plans include strategies for soil conservation, including measures to prevent soil erosion.

Western Australia

The Forest Management Plan 2024–2033 guides soil protection and rehabilitation measures in all publicly owned native forests and plantations in south-west Western Australia. The Plan outlines management objectives and activities to address disturbance to soil and water values. It includes recommendations to undertake research into soil health and soil biodiversity, monitor the impacts of management activities that cause soil disturbance, and support the recovery and restoration of soil health following disturbance.

The Code of Practice for Timber Plantations in Western Australia (2006) provides guidelines for soil protection in plantations. A 2012 review of the code (Smethurst et al. 2012) recommended several improvements, including stronger provisions to adopt harvesting and slash and litter management practices to prevent soil erosion.

The Code of Practice for Fire Management (2008) applies to all state-managed land and prescribes measures to protect soils during fire management activities and rehabilitate soils following disturbance.

Various legislation applies to the clearing, and subsequent rehabilitation of native forests for mining. The Mining Act 1978 directly addresses soil conservation and requires the implementation of rehabilitation and erosion control measures. The Environmental Protection Act 1986 emphasises the importance of soil protection, primarily through the Environmental Impact Assessment process. Under the Environmental Protection Act 1986, a licence may be required for larger mining operations that have the potential to cause pollution or environmental harm (‘prescribed premise’). Additionally, the Environmental Protection (Clearing of Native Vegetation) Regulations 2004 set specific conditions for vegetation clearing in mining, including the exclusion of clearing riparian vegetation. These regulations also stipulate that activities must avoid causing soil erosion or other forms of land degradation and, to the extent practicable, must not affect the quality of surface and subterranean water.

Compliance with legally binding and non-legally binding soil protection requirements is assessed in various ways across Australia’s states and territories, including internal and external audits.

Internal Audits

State and territory government agencies responsible for managing public forests have internal compliance systems that assess the impact of forest management activities on soil and water resources. Larger private plantation owners and managers also have internal compliance systems that assess the impact of forest management activities on soil and water resources.

The forest management system of the Forestry Corporation of New South Wales requires internal audits to be conducted to ensure compliance with Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals in multiple-use public native forests.

In Queensland, the Department of Primary Industries (DPI) monitors the compliance of timber sales permit holders with the Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020. DPI incorporates audit findings into its systems, informing permittees as part of a continuous improvement approach.

In Tasmania, the forester in charge of forestry operations conducts surveys after each discrete operational phase of a forestry operation and is empowered to issue corrective action notices if the Forest Practices Plan has not been followed.

The Compliance program within Tasmania’s Forest Practices Authority also conducts random audits of selected coupes to ensure that Forest Practices Plans have been followed and that forestry operations have not caused significant erosion, above natural levels. Sanctions, such as fines, may be applied where a serious breach of the Forest Practices Plan has occurred.

External Audits

Forest management activities, and their impact on soils, are also monitored and audited by external government departments that are responsible for regulating the relevant legislation. Compliance is also assessed by independent auditors engaged by agencies and companies seeking certification under forest management certification schemes, such as those run by the Forest Stewardship Council and Responsible Wood (internationally endorsed by the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification). Management of soil and water is an important component of each of these forest management certification schemes.

In the Australian Capital Territory, the conduct of plantation logging operations requires an Environmental Authorisation (EA) from the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA), and this EA stipulates conditions related to soil and water protection. The ACT EPA enforces these conditions by conducting compliance audits every two years, either through an inspection or a desktop assessment.

In New South Wales, the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) regulates the conditions of Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals, including those relating to soil and water protection, and carries out regular on-site and desktop compliance assessments. The New South Wales EPA is also responsible for regulating wood harvesting and roading activities in private native forest as per the Private Native Forestry Codes of Practice (2022). Softwood and hardwood plantation operations in New South Wales are regulated by the Plantations Regulation Unit of the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, which audits 30-40 sites annually, with priority given to large plantations in steep, high-rainfall areas.

In Queensland, the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service is responsible for operational auditing and reporting on the level of compliance with the Code of practice for native forest timber production on Queensland’s State forest estate 2020. The Department of Resources monitors compliance under the accepted development vegetation clearing code for native forest activities on private land, using satellite imagery, audits, and community reports.

In South Australia, soil cover and disturbance are monitored using remote sensing and predictive models. General compliance is the responsibility of the relevant landscape board authorised under the Landscape South Australia Act 2019.

In Tasmania, the Forest Practices Act 1985 mandates compliance with certified Forest Practices Plans, which must be followed by wood harvesting and roading contractors. The Forest Practices Authority performs random independent assessments on selected sites in which all aspects of planning and operations are scrutinised.

In Western Australia, the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions oversees the approvals, monitoring and compliance system for disturbance activities in state forests and timber reserves. The Department audits a range of forest management activities for compliance with requirements of the Forest Management Plan 2024–2033.

In addition to operational compliance monitoring, there are various long-term forest monitoring programs across Australia that incorporate assessments relating to soil conservation.

New South Wales

The New South Wales Forest Monitoring and Improvement Program tracks key soil indicators including soil erosion within Regional Forest Agreement regions (Moyce et al. 2021). The Forestry Corporation of New South Wales undertakes a range of long-term studies to better understand the impacts of forest harvesting on soil and water, including in Karuah River catchment (see Case study 4.1b-1).

Tasmania

Tasmania’s River Health Monitoring Program, run by the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, covers 53 sites. This is in addition to 60 sites that have been monitored historically (1994–2016). The River Health Monitoring Program, through its periodic reviews, shifted some focus towards areas with intensive land use and disturbance, including forestry landscapes. For example, the 2018–23 monitoring cycle included sampling fine sediment levels and macroinvertebrate communities that are critical indicators of in-stream impacts from forest activities or burning.

Victoria

The Victorian Forest Monitoring Program has previously included ground plot data on soil characteristics, including erodibility assessment. This ground plot data tracked soil condition and uses those measurements to support sustainability reporting and management decisions. Where possible Victoria continues to identify risks to soil structure, and erosion vulnerability.

Western Australia

The Western Australia Forest Health Monitoring Program is managed by the Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions and includes assessment of forest activities on soil characteristics, including salinisation, acidification, fertility and microbiome.

High-intensity bushfires can leave sites vulnerable to soil erosion due to the reduction in vegetation and ground cover, with recovery taking years to decades (Tulau 2016). Forest management activities can exacerbate soil erosion post-bushfire, particularly when the groundcover layer is lost (FCNSW 2020). Mechanisms to protect soil and water values during forest management activities include post-fire risk assessment before resuming forestry operations and limiting forestry operations in fire-affected areas until the soil stabilises. The following are examples of post-fire management prescriptions undertaken by states and territories.

The Forestry Corporation of New South Wales implemented a range of site-specific post-fire management prescriptions in addition to existing Coastal Integrated Forestry Operations Approvals requirements to evaluate and mitigate erosion risk following the 2019-20 bushfires. These included, increasing buffer zone widths along streams, restricting activities on slopes, and using tree debris to stabilise bare areas (FCNSW 2020). Since March 2020, the Forestry Corporation of New South Wales has focused on rehabilitating infrastructure in fire-affected areas, replacing burnt road crossings and adding drainage to reduce runoff (FCNSW 2020).

In about 10% of New South Wales plantations, severe soil erosion occurred due to the combined effects of the 2019–20 bushfires, harvesting operations, and subsequent heavy rainfall. Implemented remediation strategies included road repair, installing drainage structures and broadcasting grass seeds to restore groundcover.

In Tasmania, stream erosion following the 2019–20 Mangana fire, which was deliberately lit, was still evident in 2025. Here and elsewhere, revegetation of slopes and, in particular, streamside reserves with native vegetation, is the usual policy to follow to reduce present and future erosion. The Forest Practices Authority consults with foresters on revegetation policy and together with industry representatives develops site-specific advice on recommended planting rates and various aspects.

In Western Australia, the Forest Health Monitoring Program includes soil assessments post-fire including erosion, and the Forest Management Plan 2024–2033 outlines the requirements to monitor and rehabilitate soil following disturbance.

FCNSW (Forestry Corporation of New South Wales) (2020). 2019 – 20 Wildfires: Environmental impacts and implications for timber harvesting in NSW state forests. Forestry Corporation of New South Wales, June 2020.

Grant JC, Laffan MD, Hill RB, Neilsen WA (1995). Forest Soils of Tasmania: Handbook for identification and management. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.

Moyce MC, Gray JM, Wilson BR, Jenkins BR, Young MA, Ugbaje SU, Bishop TFA, Yang X, Henderson LE, Milford HB, Tulau MJ (2021). Determining baselines, drivers and trends of soil health and stability in New South Wales forests: NSW Forest Monitoring & Improvement Program, Final report v1.1 for NSW Natural Resources Commission by NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment and University of Sydney.

Raison RJ, Smethurst PJ, Moggridge B, Nambiar EKS (2012). Assessment of Code of Practice for Plantation Forestry: Northern Territory. CSIRO National Research Flagships for Sustainable Agriculture, and Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.

Smethurst PJ, Nambiar EKS, Raison J, Moggridge B (2012). Assessment of Code of Practice for Plantation Forestry: Western Australia. CSIRO National Research Flagships for Sustainable Agriculture, and Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.

Tulau M (2016). Fire and Soils: A review of the potential impacts of different fire regimes on soil erosion and sedimentation, nutrient and carbon cycling and impacts on water quantity and quality. New South Wales and Office of Environment and Heritage.