Indicator 1.2c: Representative species from a range of habitats monitored at scales relevant to regional forest management (2025)

• Comprehensive knowledge and monitoring across the full range of forest-dwelling species remain limited.
• State and territory governments conduct biodiversity monitoring, including to comply with relevant legislation and sustainable forest management policies, which contribute to national biodiversity records.
• Monitoring is often part of national initiatives such as the National Environmental Science Program Threatened Species Recovery Hub and the 2019-20 bushfires recovery program.
• Australia-wide monitoring programs exist for iconic threatened forest-dwelling species such as the National Koala and the National Malleefowl Monitoring Programs.

Biodiversity monitoring is a key element of sustainable forest management. Recording species metrics over time, such as their populations and locations in the landscape, helps provide insights into how species respond to threats and the identification of those species most at risk. Monitoring also informs the listing of threatened species under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth), and relevant state and territory legislation, which guides policy and investment priorities.

Despite its importance, biodiversity monitoring in Australia is generally inadequate or of poor quality, especially for threatened species (Woinarski 2018). It is estimated that 21% to 46% of threatened vertebrates and 63% to 69% of threatened plants are not monitored (SOE 2021; Lavery et al. 2021). Effective monitoring requires proper sampling methods, sufficient spatial and temporal coverage and site revisitation (Gallagher et al. 2022), and selection of key demographic parameters such as breeding success, drivers of mortality and population size to identify which stages of species' life cycles would benefit most from management interventions (Woinarski 2018). In addition, knowledge of species’ ecological requirements, including whether a species is forest-dwelling, is key to achieving ecologically sustainable forest management objectives. A list of Australia’s forest-dwelling vertebrate fauna and vascular flora is available in Indicator 1.2a.

There were several national-level initiatives supporting biodiversity research and monitoring underway between 2016 to 2021.

The National Environmental Science Program – an Australian Government initiative – funds a range of research hubs relevant to forest-dwelling species: Threatened Species Recovery Hub (2014 to 2021); Northern Australia Environmental Resources Hub (2015 to 2021); and Resilient Landscapes Hub (2021 to 2027). The Threatened Species Recovery Hub focussed on threatened mammals, birds, frogs, reptiles and freshwater fish. The National Landcare Program Regional Land Partnerships (2018 to 2023) included a Long-term Monitoring Framework to support biodiversity conservation and species monitoring. Forest-dwelling species studied and monitored within these frameworks are outlined in Table 1.2c-1, in the Supporting Information for Indicator 1.2c.

The Living Murray project, coordinated by the Murray Darling Basin Authority, monitors forest-dwelling species populations at key sites within 37,000 hectares of forest along the Murray River, including the threatened Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii), trout cod (Maccullochella macquariensis) and regent parrot (Polytelis anthopeplus). The project also includes biodiversity monitoring of Barmah Forest (one of Australia’s Ramsar wetland sites) and river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) forest at Koondrook-Perricoota (MDBA 2024).

The Terrestrial Ecosystem Research Network has the Warra Tall Eucalypt SuperSite in Tasmania, established in 1998, which includes studies of ecological processes in Eucalyptus obliqua wet forests and the long-term effects of forest management regimes on biodiversity.

Eyes on Recovery is WWF-Australia’s nationwide species monitoring project, with Artificial Intelligence technology used to track species recovery following the 2019–20 bushfires. The project has recorded many forest-dwelling species, including previously undocumented populations of brush-tailed rock wallabies (Petrogale penicillata) in northern New South Wales and signs of strong recovery in the Kangaroo Island dunnart (Sminthopsis aitkeni) despite severe impact on its habitat (Spencer 2023).

State and territory government agencies across Australia conduct forest biodiversity monitoring for a number of purposes, including to support legal requirements and sustainable forest management policies. Monitoring programs cover a wide range of forest-dwelling species and forest ecosystems. During the reporting period following the 2019-20 bushfires, monitoring efforts in affected areas focused on assessing the impact of the fires.

Australian Capital Territory

The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) government coordinates environmental management and land conservation programs in the ACT, with monitoring undertaken through their Biodiversity Research and Monitoring Program and their Conservation Effectiveness Monitoring Program. Long-term monitoring includes spotlighting surveys of nocturnal fauna, such as the greater glider (Petauroides volans), and ecosystem condition monitoring across core ecosystems. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c.

New South Wales

Forest biodiversity monitoring programs in New South Wales are coordinated by the Natural Resources Commission and involve several government agencies including the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, Forestry Corporation of New South Wales, and the New South Wales Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. This includes monitoring to specifically measure the impact of forestry operations. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c, including Case studies 1.2c-1, 1.2c-2 and 1.2c-3.

Northern Territory

The Northern Territory Department of Lands, Planning and Environment conducts long-term monitoring of flora and fauna across key habitats including eucalypt open forests, eucalypt woodlands and monsoon rainforests. Species monitoring is often conducted in partnership with Traditional Owners. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c.

Queensland

The Queensland Department of the Environment, Tourism, Science and Innovation manages threatened species conservation and monitoring in conservation areas and World Heritage sites. Monitoring programs include those for specific species such as koala and northern hairy-nosed wombat, and programs in response to events such as bushfire. The monitoring data is used in a wide range of products supporting planning, policy and legislation. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c, including Case study 1.2c-4.

South Australia

Forest biodiversity monitoring in South Australia, led by ForestrySA, focuses on protecting high conservation value areas within plantation forests and conservation areas in the Mount Lofty Ranges region and the Limestone Coast region of south-east South Australia. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c.

Tasmania

The Tasmanian Department of Natural Resources and Environment conduct long-term monitoring of a number of native terrestrial mammal species and the breeding population of orange-bellied parrots. The Nature Trackers Where? Where? Wedgie! citizen science program has been monitoring wedge-tailed eagles and other raptors and white cockatoos since 2018. The Forest Practices Authority also conduct long-term monitoring of the activity of a sample of eagle nests each year. Private researchers have been monitoring swift parrots. In addition, there have been shorter term species-specific projects that contribute to the knowledge of populations of many species. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c.

Victoria

The Victorian Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action coordinates various monitoring programs to support biodiversity management and threatened species recovery, including the Victorian Forest Monitoring Program, Forest Protection Survey Program, and long-term species monitoring in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands. Further details can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c, including Case study 1.2c-5.

Western Australia

The Western Australia Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions conducts comprehensive biodiversity monitoring through several programs including long-term monitoring programs such as FORESTCHECK that was originally designed to assess the impact of forest management actions. Further detail can be found in Supporting information for Indicator 1.2c, including Case studies 1.2c-6 and 1.2c-7.

Several monitoring programs specifically target species of high cultural significance. Surveys and monitoring for these species were co-designed and undertaken in partnership with Traditional Owners. Examples include Kimberley bilby (Macrotis lagotis) monitoring in the Fitzroy catchment led by Western Australia’s Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions and Traditional Owner rangers, and monitoring for the south-eastern red-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus banksii graptogyne) by the Glenelg Hopkins Catchment Management Authority with BirdLife Australia, Greening Australia, Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Aboriginal Cooperative, and Barengi Gadjin Land Council. Monitoring magpie geese (Anseranas semipalmata) as part of Healthy Country indicators in Kakadu National Park incorporates Indigenous peoples (Bininj/Mungguy) knowledge. These initiatives were supported by the National Environmental Science Program Regional Land Partnership.

On-ground monitoring for threatened forest-dwelling and other species as part of recovery efforts are often led by ecological recovery teams. State and territory government agencies, research groups and not-for profit organisations play significant roles in the implementation of species-specific national recovery plans.

The National Malleefowl Monitoring Program is one of Australia’s largest single-species monitoring programs. Established in 1987, it is coordinated by the National Malleefowl Recovery Team. The program monitors malleefowl populations across their range including forests. The Australian Wildlife Conservancy and the New South Wales Saving Our Species program have also used LiDAR and field surveys across 200,000 hectares to monitor malleefowl populations in Scotia and Mallee Cliffs National Park.

The National Koala Monitoring Program aims to build long-term koala monitoring across both high and low sighting areas to inform national population estimates. It is a collaborative effort involving the Australian Government, CSIRO, state and territory governments (Queensland, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and South Australia), land managers and Indigenous organisations such as the Queensland Murray Darling Catchment Aboriginal Rangers. Fifty monitoring sites have been established, with surveys completed for half of them.

The National Flying-Fox Monitoring Program monitors populations of grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), spectacled flying-fox (P. conscipillatus), black flying-fox (P. alecto) and little red flying-fox (P. scapulatus). The program is coordinated and undertaken by CSIRO and the Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, with support from state and territory governments in Queensland, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and South Australia.

The Australian Landscape Trust – North Calperum Volunteer Group has been conducting small mammal and reptile surveys since 1993, and monitoring of malleefowl and mallee forest recovery from pastoral activities.

The Difficult Bird Research Group, based at the Australian National University, studies threatened birds with distinctive monitoring requirements and management challenges, such as the orange-bellied parrot (Neophema chrysogaster) (Crates et al. 2022; Stojanovic 2020).

Wild Macadamia monitoring is undertaken through several projects, in part to meet Australia’s obligations to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (further details are outlined in Indicator 1.3b). The Still Wild About Macadamias project, led by Healthy Land and Water in partnership with the Macadamia Conservation Trust and Australian Macadamia Society, identified a large wild population of Macadamia integrifolia in Redland, Queensland (Horticulture Innovation Australia 2019), and established long-term monitoring plots to assess climate change impacts. The Wild Macadamia Hunt, led by Brisbane City Council, engages the public in locating naturally occurring wild trees to help capture unique genetic material.

Myrtle Rust Monitoring is taking place at sites across Queensland and New South Wales. The Myrtle Rust National Action Plan 2020 identifies highly-impacted forest-dwelling species such as angle-stemmed myrtle (Gossia gonoclada), native guava (Rhodomyrtus psidioides) and smooth scrub turpentine (Rhodamnia maideniana). Since 2011, R. psidioides has been monitored at 66 sites across Queensland and New South Wales (Fensham et al. 2020). Ongoing community-led monitoring along 99 kilometres of riparian habitat supports recovery efforts for G. gonoclada, a species restricted to Logan and Brisbane.

The Australian Wildlife Conservancy’s (AWC) Ecological Health Monitoring program for marsupials tracks ecological health in its sanctuaries and partner sites, and the status, trends, and threats to over 90 threatened vertebrate species across AWC sanctuaries. Nearly 40 species are monitored regularly, including forest-dwelling species such as the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus), greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis), and burrowing bettong (Bettongia lesueur).